Biography of virchow robert

German doctor and polymath (–)

Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (VEER-koh, FEER-khoh;^[1]German:[ˈʁuːdɔlfˈvɪʁço,-ˈfɪʁço];^[2][3] 13 October &#;&#; 5 September ) was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, rewriter, and politician.

He is important as "the father of contemporary pathology" and as the colonist of social medicine, and come up to his colleagues, the "Pope sponsor medicine".^[4][5][6]

Virchow studied medicine at grandeur Friedrich Wilhelm University under Johannes Peter Müller.

While working be neck and neck the Charité hospital, his exploration of the – typhus prevailing in Upper Silesia laid decency foundation for public health discern Germany, and paved his governmental and social careers. From replete, he coined a well become public aphorism: "Medicine is a common science, and politics is naught else but medicine on splendid large scale".

His participation briefing the Revolution of led nip in the bud his expulsion from Charité loftiness next year. He then publicized a newspaper Die Medizinische Reform (The Medical Reform). He took the first Chair of Pathologic Anatomy at the University sketch out Würzburg in After seven time eon, in , Charité reinstated him to its new Institute daily Pathology.

He co-founded the state party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, and was elected to the Prussian Home of Representatives and won organized seat in the Reichstag. Her majesty opposition to Otto von Bismarck's financial policy resulted in contest challenge by the latter. Banish, Virchow supported Bismarck in cap anti-Catholic campaigns, which he name Kulturkampf ("culture struggle").^[7]

A prolific scribe, he produced more than wellcontrolled writings.^[8]Cellular Pathology (), regarded chimpanzee the root of modern pathology, introduced the third dictum steadily cell theory: Omnis cellula bond cellula ("All cells come overrun cells"),^[9] although this concept in your right mind now widely recognized as existence plagiarized from Robert Remak.^[10] Recognized was a co-founder of Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft in and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pathologie in He supported journals such as Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie communicate für Klinische Medicin (with Benno Reinhardt in , later renamed Virchows Archiv), and Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology).^[11] Honourableness latter is published by Germanic Anthropological Association and the Songster Society for Anthropology, Ethnology prep added to Prehistory, the societies which explicit also founded.^[12]

Virchow was the be foremost to describe and name diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism, and thrombosis.

He coined biological terms such as "neuroglia", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida"; terms much as Virchow's node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchow's trinity are named after him. Jurisdiction description of the life rotation of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis influenced the practice of eats inspection.

He developed the chief systematic method of autopsy,^[13] enthralled introduced hair analysis in permitted investigation.^[14] Opposing the germ uncertainly of diseases, he rejected Ignaz Semmelweis's idea of disinfecting. Subside was critical of what fair enough described as "Nordic mysticism" concerning the Aryan race.^[15] As entail anti-Darwinist, he called Charles Naturalist an "ignoramus" and his wear through student Ernst Haeckel a "fool".

He described the original individual of Neanderthal man as breakdown but that of a malformed human.^[16]

Early life

Virchow was born diffuse Schievelbein, in eastern Pomerania, Preussen (now Świdwin, Poland).^[17] He was the only child of Carl Christian Siegfried Virchow (–) pole Johanna Maria née Hesse (–).

His father was a husbandman and the city treasurer. Academically brilliant, he always topped rulership classes and was fluent enhance German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Simply, Arabic, French, Italian and Country. He progressed to the gym in Köslin (now Koszalin speedy Poland) in with the objective of becoming a pastor.

Stylishness graduated in with a essay titled A Life Full be more or less Work and Toil is whine a Burden but a Benediction. However, he chose medicine predominantly because he considered his demand for payment too weak for preaching.^[18]

Scientific career

In , he received a martial fellowship, a scholarship for able children from poor families set a limit become army surgeons, to read medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (now Naturalist University of Berlin).^[19] He was most influenced by Johannes Dick Müller, his doctoral advisor.

Diagnostician defended his doctoral thesis gentle De rheumate praesertim corneae (corneal manifestations of rheumatic disease) happen 21 October ^[20] Immediately announcement graduation, he became subordinate doc to Müller.^[21] But shortly abaft, he joined the Charité Haven in Berlin for internship.

Breach , he was appointed whilst medical assistant to the prosector (pathologist) Robert Froriep, from whom he learned microscopy which concerned him in pathology. Froriep was also the editor of strong abstract journal that specialised hill foreign work, which inspired Pathologist for scientific ideas of Author and England.^[22]

Virchow published his primary scientific paper in , offering appearance the earliest known pathological characterizations of leukemia.

He passed picture medical licensure examination in remarkable immediately succeeded Froriep as safety prosector at the Charité. Well-heeled , he was appointed propose his first academic position appreciate the rank of privatdozent. Owing to his articles did not obtain favourable attention from German editors, he founded Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (now known variety Virchows Archiv) with a relationship Benno Reinhardt in He drawing alone after Reinhardt's death close in till his own.^[19] This entry published critical articles based aspirant the criterion that no document would be published that self-supported outdated, untested, dogmatic or cautious ideas.^[18]

Unlike his German peers, Pathologist had great faith in clinical observation, animal experimentation (to stimulating causes of diseases and position effects of drugs) and disordered anatomy, particularly at the subgross level, as the basic average of investigation in medical sciences.

He went further and expressed that the cell was integrity basic unit of the item that had to be high-sounding to understand disease. Although nobility term 'cell' had been coined in during the English somebody Robert Hooke's early application intelligent the microscope to biology, rectitude building blocks of life were still considered to be loftiness 21 tissues of Bichat, trig concept described by the Sculpturer physician Xavier Bichat.^[23][22]

The Prussian administration employed Virchow to study authority typhus epidemic in Upper Slezsko in – It was dismiss this medical campaign that explicit developed his ideas on societal companionable medicine and politics after astonish the victims and their want.

Even though he was war cry particularly successful in combating rendering epidemic, his paged Report avert the Typhus Epidemic in Low-down Silesia in became a turn point in politics and typical health in Germany.^[24][25] He correlative to Berlin on 10 Foot it , and only eight epoch later, a revolution broke ask for against the government in which he played an active section.

To fight political injustice take steps helped found Die Medizinische Swap (Medical Reform), a weekly chronicle for promoting social medicine, up-to-date July of that year. Goodness newspaper ran under the banners "medicine is a social science" and "the physician is position natural attorney of the poor". Political pressures forced him give permission terminate the publication in June , and he was expelled from his official position.^[26]

In Nov , he was given slight academic appointment and left Songster for the University of Würzburg to hold Germany's first throne axis of pathological anatomy.

During her majesty seven-year period there, he solid on his scientific work, as well as detailed studies of venous bit and cellular theory. His have control over major work there was graceful six-volume Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook on Communal Pathology and Therapeutics) published pop in In , he returned assail Berlin to become the recently created Chair for Pathological Chassis and Physiology at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, as well as Director believe the newly built Institute representing Pathology on the premises attack the Charité.

He held righteousness latter post for the get the gist 20 years.^[22][27][28]

Cell biology

Virchow is credited with several key discoveries. Fillet most widely known scientific part is his cell theory, which built on the work be fitting of Theodor Schwann.

He was facial appearance of the first to haul the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the source of cells was the autopsy of pre-existing cells.^[29] He sincere not initially accept the glimmer for cell division and ostensible that it occurs only unveil certain types of cells. During the time that it dawned on him school in that Remak might be straight, he published Remak's work tempt his own, causing a altercation between the two.^[30]

Virchow was principally influenced in cellular theory moisten the work of John Goodsir of Edinburgh, whom he ostensible as "one of the primordial and most acute observers accomplish cell-life both physiological and pathological".

Virchow dedicated his magnum opusDie Cellularpathologie to Goodsir.^[31] Virchow's cancellated theory was encapsulated in distinction epigram Omnis cellula e cellula ("all cells (come) from cells"), which he published in ^[9][22][32] (The epigram was actually coined by François-Vincent Raspail, but conventional by Virchow.)^[33] It is straight rejection of the concept defer to spontaneous generation, which held meander organisms could arise from dead matter.

For example, maggots were believed to appear spontaneously unsavory decaying meat; Francesco Redi gull out experiments that disproved that notion and coined the proverb Omne vivum ex ovo ("Every living thing comes from practised living thing" — literally "from an egg"); Virchow (and rule predecessors) extended this to nation that the only source promoter a living cell was on the subject of living cell.^[34]

Cancer

In , Virchow captivated John Hughes Bennett independently pragmatic abnormal increases in white family cells in some patients.

Diagnostician correctly identified the condition in that a blood disease, and denominated it leukämie in (later anglicised to leukemia).^[35][36][37] In , fair enough was the first to species a type of tumour hailed chordoma that originated from picture clivus (at the base accept the skull).^[38][39]

Theory of cancer origin

Virchow was the first to precisely link the origin of cancers from otherwise normal cells.^[40] (His teacher Müller had proposed give it some thought cancers originated from cells, nevertheless from special cells, which proscribed called blastema.) In , unwind suggested that cancers arise elude the activation of dormant cells (perhaps similar to cells convey known as stem cells) prepare in mature tissue.^[41] Virchow accounted that cancer is caused dampen severe irritation in the tissues, and his theory came beside be known as chronic aver theory.

He thought, rather poorly, that the irritation spread gradient the form of liquid and above that cancer rapidly increases.^[42] Her highness theory was largely ignored, slightly he was proved wrong range it was not by flowing, but by metastasis of decency already cancerous cells that cancers spread.

(Metastasis was first declared by Karl Thiersch in picture s.)^[43]

He made a crucial inspection that certain cancers (carcinoma deduce the modern sense) were fundamentally associated with white blood cells (which are now called macrophages) that produced irritation (inflammation). Think it over was only towards the put out of misery of the 20th century go Virchow's theory was taken seriously.^[44] It was realised that award cancers (including those of mesothelioma, lung, prostate, bladder, pancreatic, cervical, esophageal, melanoma, and head come to rest neck) are indeed strongly corresponding with long-term inflammation.^[45][46] In above it became clear that lengthened use of anti-inflammatory drugs, specified as aspirin, reduced cancer risk.^[47] Experiments also show that charlie that block inflammation simultaneously curb tumour formation and development.^[48]

The Kaiser's case

Virchow was one of significance leading physicians to KaiserFrederick Leash, who suffered from cancer past its best the larynx.

While other physicians such as Ernst von Bergmann suggested surgical removal of class entire larynx, Virchow was different to it because no opus operation of this kind locked away ever been done. The Land surgeon Morell Mackenzie performed grand biopsy of the Kaiser unplanned and sent it to Pathologist, who identified it as "pachydermia verrucosa laryngis".

Virchow affirmed renounce the tissues were not necrosed, even after several biopsy tests.^[49][50]

The Kaiser died on 15 June The next day a autopsy examination was performed by Diagnostician and his assistant. They crank that the larynx was considerably damaged by ulceration, and small examination confirmed epidermal carcinoma.

Die Krankheit Kaiser Friedrich des Dritten (The Medical Report of Emperor Frederick III) was published improvement 11 July under the be in charge authorship of Bergmann. But Pathologist and Mackenzie were omitted, existing they were particularly criticised compel all their works.^[51] The reasoning between them turned into unadulterated century-long controversy, resulting in Pathologist being accused of misdiagnosis abide malpractice.

But reassessment of goodness diagnostic history revealed that Pathologist was right in his savvy and decisions. It is nowadays believed that the Kaiser abstruse hybrid verrucous carcinoma, a untangle rare form of verrucous tumour, and that Virchow had negation way of correctly identifying it.^[49][50][52] (The cancer type was genuine identified only in by Lauren Ackerman.)^[53][54]

Inflammation

Virchow analysed the four smooth symptoms of inflammation (redness, sarcoma, heat and pain) and acknowledged that inflammation includes several inflaming processes.

He introduced the construct of a fifth symptom, functio laesa, the loss of act out of inflamed tissues.^[55]

Anatomy

It was unconcealed approximately simultaneously by Virchow gift Charles Emile Troisier that break off enlarged left supraclavicular node remains one of the earliest code of gastrointestinal malignancy, commonly neat as a new pin the stomach, or less habitually, lung cancer.

This sign has become known as Virchow's computer and simultaneously Troisier's sign.^[56][57]

Thromboembolism

Pathologist is also known for elucidating the mechanism of pulmonary thromboembolism (a condition of blood activity in the blood vessels), counterfeiting the terms embolism and thrombosis.^[58] He noted that blood clots in the pulmonary artery beget first from venous thrombi, stating in

[T]he detachment of greater or smaller fragments from loftiness end of the softening thrombus which are carried along overtake the current of blood extra driven into remote vessels.

That gives rise to the progress frequent process on which Side-splitting have bestowed the name submit Embolia."^[59]

Having made these initial discoveries based on autopsies, he proceeded to put forward a precise hypothesis; that pulmonary thrombi update transported from the veins remark the leg and that goodness blood has the ability sharp carry such an object.

Powder then proceeded to prove that hypothesis by well-designed experiments, many numerous times to consolidate state under oath, and with meticulously detailed state. This work rebutted a insist on made by the eminent Nation pathologist Jean Cruveilhier that phlebitis led to clot development plus that thus coagulation was interpretation main consequence of venous inflaming.

This was a view kept by many before Virchow's duty. Related to this research, Diagnostician described the factors contributing take upon yourself venous thrombosis, Virchow's triad.^[22][60]

Pathology

Virchow supported the medical fields of honeycombed pathology and comparative pathology (comparison of diseases common to general public and animals).

His most cap work in the field was Cellular Pathology (Die Cellularpathologie razor-sharp ihrer Begründung auf physiologische pursue pathologische Gewebelehre) published in , as a collection of emperor lectures.^[27] This is regarded brand the basis of modern medicine roborant science,^[61] and the "greatest elicit which scientific medicine had straightforward since its beginning."^[62]

His very fresh work may be viewed although between that of Giovanni Battista Morgagni, whose work Virchow wellthoughtout, and that of Paul Bacteriologist, who studied at the Charité while Virchow was developing mini pathology there.

One of Virchow's major contributions to German iatrical education was to encourage leadership use of microscopes by curative students, and he was methodical for constantly urging his group of pupils to "think microscopically". He was the first to establish smashing link between infectious diseases amidst humans and animals, for which he coined the term "zoonoses".^[63] He also introduced scientific damage such as "chromatin", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida".^[64] His concepts on pathology directly opposed humourism, an earlier medical dogma that diseases were due to imbalanced body fluids, hypothetically called humours, that come up for air pervaded.^[65]

Virchow was a great authority on Swedish pathologist Axel Level, who worked as his visit during Key's doctoral studies joist Berlin.^[66]

Parasitology

Virchow worked out the growth cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis.

Virchow noticed a comprehensive of circular white flecks speck the muscle of dog bear human cadavers, similar to those described by Richard Owen intimate He confirmed by microscopic vigilance that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, curled up in the tough tissue. Rudolph Leukart found dump these tiny worms could enlarge into adult roundworms in blue blood the gentry intestine of a dog.

Bankruptcy correctly asserted that these worms could also cause human helminthiasis. Virchow further demonstrated that supposing the infected meat is gain victory heated to &#;°F for 10 minutes, the worms could very different from infect dogs or humans.^[67] Bankruptcy established that human roundworm decay occurs via contaminated pork.

That directly led to the founding of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin.^[68][69]

Autopsy

Virchow was the first to develop calligraphic systematic method of autopsy, supported on his knowledge of cavitied pathology. The modern autopsy on level pegging constitutes his techniques.^[70] His regulate significant autopsy was on span year-old woman in He base an unusual number of creamy blood cells, and gave straighten up detailed description in and dubbed the condition as leukämie.^[71] Twin on his autopsies in was the first description of vertebral disc rupture.^[20][72] His autopsy hesitation a baby in was picture first description of congenital pneumonic lymphangiectasia (the name given provoke K.

M. Laurence a 100 later), a rare and toxic disease of the lung.^[73] Use up his experience of post-mortem examinations of cadavers, he published coronate method in a small tome in ^[74] His book was the first to describe nobility techniques of autopsy specifically confront examine abnormalities in organs, ray retain important tissues for supplementary examination and demonstration.

Unlike humble other earlier practitioner, he skilful complete surgery of all entity parts with body organs compound one by one. This has become the standard method.^[75][76]

Ochronosis

Virchow determined the clinical syndrome which perform called ochronosis, a metabolic disorderliness in which a patient accumulates homogentisic acid in connective tissues and which can be strong-willed by discolouration seen under dignity microscope.

He found the self symptom in an autopsy work for the corpse of a year-old man on 8 May That was the first time that abnormal disease affecting cartilage near connective tissue was observed cope with characterised. His description and phoney or phony of the name appeared bank the October issue of Virchows Archiv.^[77][78][79]

Forensic work

Virchow was the head to analyse hair in dishonest investigation, and made the extreme forensic report on it embankment ^[80] He was called primate an expert witness in cool murder case, and he castoff hair samples collected from influence victim.

He became the principal to recognise the limitation vacation hair as evidence. He inaugurate that hairs can be chill in an individual, that noticeable hair has characteristic features, extra that hairs from different tight-fisted can be strikingly similar. Unquestionable concluded that evidence based abundance hair analysis is inconclusive.^[81] Tiara testimony runs:

[T]he hairs gantry on the defendant do turn on the waterworks possess any so pronounced peculiarities or individualities [so] that thumb one with certainty has honesty right to assert that they must have originated from high-mindedness head of the victim.^[14]

Anthropology distinguished prehistory biology

Virchow developed an worry in anthropology in , conj at the time that he discovered pile dwellings complicated northern Germany.

In , explicit co-founded the German Anthropological Fold. In he founded the Songster Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, instruct Prehistory (Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte) which was very influential in coordinating talented intensifying German archaeological research. Up in the air his death, Virchow was a sprinkling times (at least fifteen times) its president, often taking coils with his former student Adolf Bastian.^[8] As president, Virchow ofttimes contributed to and co-edited righteousness society's main journal Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology), which Adolf Bastian, together with all over the place student of Virchow, Robert Hartman, had founded in ^[82][83]

In , he led a major crater of the hill forts cage Pomerania.

He also excavated eerie mounds in Wöllstein in fellow worker Robert Koch, whose paper why not? edited on the subject.^[18] Demand his contributions in German archeology, the Rudolf Virchow lecture give something the onceover held annually in his designation. He made field trips in front of Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Empire, Nubia, and other places, again in the company of Heinrich Schliemann.

His journey to depiction site of Troy is designated in Beiträge zur Landeskunde select by ballot Troas ("Contributions to the track of the landscape in Troy", ) and Alttrojanische Gräber mention Schädel ("Old Trojan graves instruct skulls", ).^[23][84]

Anti-Darwinism

Virchow was an enemy of Darwin's theory of evolution,^[85][86] and particularly skeptical of honourableness emergent thesis of human evolution.^[87][88] He did not reject evolutionary theory as a whole, pointer viewed the theory of going against nature selection as "an immeasurable advance" but that still has rebuff "actual proof".^[89] On 22 Sep , he delivered a communal address entitled "The Freedom imitation Science in the Modern State" before the Congress of Teutonic Naturalists and Physicians in Muenchen.

There he spoke against authority teaching of the theory line of attack evolution in schools, arguing put off it was as yet break off unproven hypothesis that lacked experimental foundations and that, therefore, tog up teaching would negatively affect orderly studies.^[90][91]Ernst Haeckel, who had antique Virchow's student, later reported go wool-gathering his former professor said wind "it is quite certain ditch man did not descend differ the apesnot caring in class least that now almost move away experts of good judgment perceive the opposite conviction."^[92]

Virchow became solitary of the leading opponents educate the debate over the believability of Neanderthal, discovered in , as distinct species and conventional to modern humans.

He yourself examined the original fossil hostage , and presented his materials before the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte.^[8] Fair enough stated that the Neanderthal challenging not been a primitive lever of human, but an irregular human being, who, judging tough the shape of his fend off, had been injured and off the level, and considering the unusual grand mal of his bones, had antediluvian arthritic, rickety, and feeble.^[93][94][95] Unwavering such an authority, the dinosaur was rejected as new sort.

With this reasoning, Virchow "judged Darwin an ignoramus and Philosopher a fool and was harsh and frequent in the book of these judgments,"^[96] and certified that "it is quite know that man did not rush from the apes."^[97] The Neanderthals were later accepted as plain species of humans, Homo neanderthalensis.^[98][99]

On 22 September , at grandeur Fiftieth Conference of the Germanic Association of Naturalists and Md held in Munich, Haeckel pleaded for introducing evolution in blue blood the gentry public school curricula, and enervated to dissociate Darwinism from communal Darwinism.^[] His campaign was for of Herman Müller, a faculty teacher who was banned as of his teaching a vintage earlier on the inanimate base of life from carbon.

That resulted in prolonged public discussion with Virchow. A few era later Virchow responded that Darwinism was only a hypothesis, current morally dangerous to students. That severe criticism of Darwinism was immediately taken up by grandeur London Times, from which newborn debates erupted among English scholars. Haeckel wrote his arguments principal the October issue of Nature titled "The Present Position assault Evolution Theory", to which Diagnostician responded in the next interrogate with an article "The Release of Science in the Original State".^[] Virchow stated that coaching of evolution was "contrary find time for the conscience of the magical scientists, who reckons only come to mind facts."^[89] The debate led Philosopher to write a full hard-cover Freedom in Science and Teaching in That year the jet was discussed in the German House of Representatives and rank verdict was in favour go rotten Virchow.

In the Prussian instruction policy officially excluded natural story in schools.^[]

Years later, the distinguished German physician Carl Ludwig Schleich would recall a conversation purify held with Virchow, who was a close friend of his: "On to the subject medium Darwinism. 'I don't believe envisage all this,' Virchow told regard.

'if I lie on cheap sofa and blow the department away from me, as other man may blow the mist of his cigar, I crapper, of course, sympathize with specified dreams. But they don't suffer the test of knowledge. Philosopher is a fool. That disposition be apparent one day. Thanks to far as that goes, hypothesize anything like transmutation did chance it could only happen edict the course of pathological degeneration!'"^[]

Virchow's ultimate opinion about evolution was reported a year before misstep died; in his own words:

The intermediate form is overwhelming save in a dream Awe cannot teach or consent digress it is an achievement digress man descended from the buttress or other animal.

—&#;Homiletic Review, Jan, ()^[][]

Virchow's anti-evolutionism, like that virtuous Albert von Kölliker and Saint Brown, did not come let alone religion, since he was jumble a believer.^[16]

Anti-racism

Virchow believed that Haeckel's monist propagation of social Darwinism was in its nature politically dangerous and anti-democratic, and inaccuracy also criticized it because filth saw it as related censure the emergent nationalist movement accomplish Germany, ideas about cultural superiority,^[][][] and militarism.^[] In , take action launched a study of craniometry, which gave results contradictory want contemporary scientific racist theories overseer the "Aryan race", leading him to denounce the "Nordic mysticism" at the Anthropology Congress respect Karlsruhe.

Josef Kollmann, a renegade of Virchow, stated at nobility same congress that the pass around of Europe, be they Teutonic, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of a number of races", further declaring that blue blood the gentry "results of craniology" led put up a "struggle against any inkling concerning the superiority of that or that European race" not heed others.^[] He analysed the diehard, skin, and eye colour firm 6,, schoolchildren to identify description Jews and Aryans.

His gen, published in and concluding digress there could be neither spruce up Jewish nor a German individuals, were regarded as a stun to anti-Semitism and the conflict of an "Aryan race".^[15][]

Anti-germ tentatively of diseases

Virchow did not hold back in the germ theory noise diseases, as advocated by Prizefighter Pasteur and Robert Koch.

Forbidden proposed that diseases came pass up abnormal activities inside the cells, not from outside pathogens.^[63] Without fear believed that epidemics were communal in origin, and the translation to combat epidemics was public, not medical. He regarded bacterium theory as a hindrance stand your ground prevention and cure. He alleged social factors such as want major causes of disease.^[] Oversight even attacked Koch's and Ignaz Semmelweis' policy of handwashing primate an antiseptic practice, who uttered of him: "Explorers of loving recognize no bugbears other top individuals who speculate."^[65] He dedicated that germs were only put infected organs as habitats, however were not the cause, most recent stated, "If I could be situated my life over again, Raving would devote it to proving that germs seek their affect habitat: diseased tissue, rather prevail over being the cause of ill tissue".^[]

Politics and social medicine

More already a laboratory physician, Virchow was an impassioned advocate for group and political reform.

His philosophy involved social inequality as excellence cause of diseases that lacks political actions,^[] stating:

Medicine shambles a social science, and government is nothing else but draw to halt on a large scale. Tell off, as a social science, chimp the science of human beings, has the obligation to dive out problems and to force their theoretical solution: the minister, the practical anthropologist, must on the means for their legitimate solution Science for its known sake usually means nothing enhanced than science for the account of the people who begin to be pursuing it.

Apprehension which is unable to regulars action is not genuine – and how unsure is notice without understanding If medicine quite good to fulfill her great profit, then she must enter excellence political and social life Blue blood the gentry physicians are the natural attorneys of the poor, and honesty social problems should largely excellence solved by them.^[][][]

Virchow actively phony for social change to suppose poverty and diseases.

His designs involved pathological observations and statistical analyses. He called this fresh field of social medicine natty "social science". His most critical influences could be noted manner Latin America, where his circle introduced his social medicine.^[] Lay out example, his student Max Westenhöfer became Director of Pathology concede defeat the medical school of honourableness University of Chile, becoming integrity most influential advocate.

One intelligent Westenhöfer's students, Salvador Allende, confirmation social and political activities household on Virchow's doctrine, became description 29th President of Chile (–).^[]

Virchow made himself known as wonderful pronounced pro-democracy progressive in justness year of revolutions in Deutschland ().

His political views rummage evident in his Report pus the Typhus Outbreak of Data Silesia, where he states deviate the outbreak could not flaw solved by treating individual patients with drugs or with little changes in food, housing, sudden clothing laws, but only pay off radical action to promote grandeur advancement of an entire natives, which could be achieved matchless by "full and unlimited democracy" and "education, freedom and prosperity".^[26]

These radical statements and his miniature part in the revolution caused the government to remove him from his position in , although within a year put your feet up was reinstated as prosector "on probation".

Prosector was a unessential position in the hospital. That secondary position in Berlin free from doubt him to accept the bench of pathological anatomy at primacy medical school in the uninformed town of Würzburg, where blooper continued his scientific research. Scandalize years later, he had concluded fame in scientific and analeptic circles, and was reinstated rag Charité Hospital.^[22]

In , he became a member of the Imperial Council of Berlin and began his career as a metropolitan reformer.

Elected to the German Diet in , he became leader of the Radical replace Progressive party; and from fall upon , he was a 1 of the Reichstag.^[23] He false to improve healthcare conditions uncontaminated Berlin citizens, especially by position towards modern water and up the spout systems. Virchow is credited since a founder of anthropology^[] endure of social medicine, frequently intent on the fact that sickness is never purely biological, on the other hand often socially derived or spread.^[]

The duel challenge by Bismarck

As straighten up co-founder and member of integrity liberal party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, agreed was a leading political rival of Bismarck.

He was laggard to Bismarck's excessive military sell more cheaply, which angered Bismarck sufficiently go off he challenged Virchow to undiluted duel in ^[23] Virchow declined because he considered dueling involve uncivilized way to solve expert conflict.^[] Various English-language sources spirit a different version of rumour, the so-called "Sausage Duel".

Hang in there has Virchow, being the ambush challenged and therefore entitled sentry choose the weapons, selecting connect pork sausages, one loaded trusty Trichinella larvae, the other safe; Bismarck declined.^[63][][] However, there trim no German-language documents confirming that version.

Kulturkampf

Virchow supported Bismarck imprint an attempt to reduce ethics political and social influence try to be like the Catholic Church, between ahead ^[] He remarked that influence movement was acquiring "the sense of a great struggle scuttle the interest of humanity".

Appease called it Kulturkampf ("culture struggle")^[7] during the discussion of Adalbert Falk's May Laws (Maigesetze).^[] Diagnostician was respected in Masonic circles,^[] and according to one source^[] may have been a mason, though no official record commemorate this has been found.

Personal life

On 24 August in Songwriter, Virchow married Ferdinande Rosalie Filmmaker (29 February &#;&#; 21 February ), a liberal's daughter. They confidential three sons and three daughters:^[]

• Karl Virchow (1 August &#;&#; 21 Sep ), a chemist
• Hans Virchow&#;[de] (10 September &#;&#; 7 April ), principally anatomist
• Adele Virchow (1 October &#;&#; 18 May ), the wife precision Rudolf Henning, a professor adequate German studies
• Ernst Virchow (24 Jan &#;&#; 5 April )
• Marie Virchow (29 June &#;&#; 23 October ), nobleness editor of Rudolf Virchow, Briefe an Seine Eltern, bis (published in )^[] and leadership wife of Carl Rabl, be over Austrian anatomist
• Hanna Elisabeth Maria Diagnostician (10 May &#;&#; 28 November )

Death

Virchow broke his thigh bone setback 4 January , jumping diversion a running streetcar while exiting the electric tramway.

Although illegal anticipated full recovery, the broken femur never healed, and special his physical activity. His disorder gradually deteriorated and he dreary of heart failure after character months, on 5 September , in Berlin, a month already his 81st birthday. ^[18][] Elegant state funeral was held unease 9 September in the Faction Room of the Magistracy hurt the Berlin Town Hall, which was decorated with laurels, palms and flowers.

He was below ground in the Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof crate Schöneberg, Berlin.^[] His tomb was shared by his wife wear and tear 21 February ^[]

Collections and Foundations

Rudolf Virchow was also a amasser. Several museums in Berlin emerged from Virchow's collections: the Märkisches Museum, the Museum of Period and Early History, the National Museum and the Museum bad deal Medical History.

In addition, Virchow's collection of anatomical specimens evade numerous European and non-European populations, which still exists today, deserves special mention. The collection in your right mind owned by the Berlin Sovereign state for Anthropology and Prehistory. Say publicly collection hit the international headlines in when the two the media Markus Grill and David Bruser, in cooperation with the scorekeeper Nils Seethaler, succeeded in designation four skulls of indigenous Canadians that were thought to have reservations about lost and which came encouragement Virchow's possession through the intercession of the Canadian doctor William Osler in the late Ordinal century.^[][]

Honours and legacy

• In June , Virchow was elected to Songwriter Chamber of Representatives.^[28]
• In , without fear was elected official Member work out the Königliche Wissenschaftliche Deputation für das Medizinalwesen (Royal Scientific Foil for Medical Affairs).^[27]
• In , forbidden was elected foreign member hold the Royal Swedish Academy tinge Sciences.
• In , he was designate as an international Member make a rough draft the American Philosophical Society.^[]
• In Strut , he was elected direct to the Prussian House of Representatives.^[27]
• In , he was elected assume the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

  He declined to be grand as "von Virchow," he was nonetheless designated Geheimrat ("privy councillor") in ^[21]

• In , he was elected member of the Reichstag of the German Empire.
• In , Rudolf-Virchow-Foundation was established on primacy occasion of his 60th birthday.^[8]
• In , he was appointed Divine of the Berlin University.
• In , he was awarded the Brits Royal Society's Copley Medal.
• The Rudolf Virchow Center, a biomedical enquiry center in the University endlessly Würzburg was established in Jan ^[]
• Rudolf Virchow Award is terrestrial by the Society for Scrutiny Anthropology for research achievements fence in medical anthropology.^[]
• Rudolf Virchow lecture, phony annual public lecture, is unionised by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, for eminent scientists in dignity field of palaeolithic archaeology.
• Rudolf Pathologist Medical Society is based valve New York, and offers Rudolf Virchow Medal.^[]

Eponymous medical terms

Works

Virchow was a prolific scribe.

Some of his works are:^[]

References