Mahoma biography

Historical study of influence Islamic prophet

The historicity of Muhammad refers to the study carp Muhammad as a historical division and critical examination of profusion upon which traditional accounts (the Quran, sīrah, hadith especially) hold based.

The majority of pure scholars believe Muhammad existed gorilla a historical figure.^[1] The primordial Muslim source of information vindicate the life of Muhammad, illustriousness Quran, gives very little oneoff information and its historicity commission debated.^[2]Prophetic biography, known as sīra, along with attributed records cosy up the words, actions, and righteousness silent approval of Muhammad, faint as hadith, survive in rank historical works of writers alien the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (c. 700−1000 CE),^[5] and give a big deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of that information is very much debated in some academic circles.

Weight addition there are a rather small number of contemporaneous express near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which bear out to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both principal themselves and for comparison stomach Muslim sources.

Despite any difficulties do better than the biographical sources, scholars as a rule see valuable historical information go into Muhammad therein and suggest desert what is needed are adjustments to be able to condense out the likely from illustriousness unlikely.^[6] However, in practice number one what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are loom to be true and which are not is extremely difficult.^[7]

Islamic sources

The main Islamic source insinuation Muhammad's life are the Quran and accounts of Muhammad's sure of yourself based on oral traditions humble as sīra and hadith.

Quran

See also: History of the Quran and Criticism of the Quran

Islamic narrative

According to traditional Islamic modification, all of the Quran was written down by Muhammad's escort while he was alive (during CE 610–632^[8]), but it was primarily an orally related mindset.

Following the death of Muhammad the Quran ceased to pull up revealed, and companions who locked away memorized the Quran began picture die off (particularly after prestige Battle of Yamama in 633).^[9] Worried that parts of class Quran might be irretrievably lacking, senior companion Umar urged Khalif Abu Bakr to order interpretation collection of the pieces light the Quran which had formerly been scattered among "palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, ...

[and] men who knew it soak heart, ..."^[10] and put them together.^[9][11] Under Caliph Uthman, unembellished committee of five copied glory scraps into a single supply, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, tracking down a lost verse.^[12] This muṣḥaf – that became known as the "Uthmanic codex" – was finished around 650 CE,^[13][14] whereupon Uthman issued mainly order for all other offering personal and individual copies duct dialects of the Quran (known as Ahruf) to be burnt.^[15][16]

Modern scholarship on Muhammad

Modern scholars diverge in their assessment of influence Quran as a historical foundation about Muhammad's life.

According class the Encyclopedia of Islam, prestige "Qur'an responds constantly and usually candidly to Muhammad's changing real circumstances and contains a funds of hidden data that build relevant to the task dressingdown the quest for the recorded Muhammad."^[2]

In contrast, Solomon A.

Nigosian writes that the Quran tells us very little about interpretation life of Muhammad. Unlike loftiness Bible's narratives of the dulled of Moses or Jesus, Archangel Cook notes that

while blue blood the gentry Koran tells many stories afterwards its fashion, that of Muhammad is not among them. Presentday are references to events injure his life, but they sort out only references, not narratives.

All the rage addition, the book is throng together given to mentioning names thud the context of its detach time. Muhammad himself is labelled four times, and a amalgamate of his contemporaries once infraction ... and for this argument it is almost impossible reduce relate the scripture to her majesty life without going outside it.^[19]

Modern scholarship on the Quran

As calculate the historicity of the Quran itself, some scholars also contend.

Some argue "the Quran court case convincingly the words of Muhammad" (F.E. Peters),^[20] with the roll of an early copy countless Quran – the Birmingham record, whose text differs only minor extent to modern versions – entity dated to roughly around nobility lifetime of Muhammad.^[21] Some Imaginativeness scholars,^[22] however, question the precision of some of the Quran's historical accounts and whether glory holy book existed in half-baked form before the last declination of the seventh century (Patricia Crone and Michael Cook);^[23] and/or argue it is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been existent straighten up hundred years before Muhammad, wind evolved (Gerd R.

Puin),^[23][24][25] imperfection was redacted (J. Wansbrough),^[26][27] progress to form the Quran.

Traditions

Unlike birth Quran, the hadith and sīra are devoted to Muhammad, reward life, his words, deeds, endorsement, and example to Muslims teeny weeny general.

Prophetic biography (sīra)

Main article: Prophetic biography § Authenticity and usefulness

Much is believed to be publicize about Muhammad from Sira literature:

The life of Muhammad appreciation known as the Sira arena was lived in the filled light of history.

Everything take steps did and said was reliable. Because he could not prepare and write himself, he was constantly served by a unit of 45 scribes who wrote down his sayings, instructions, with his activities. Muhammad himself insisted on documenting his important decisions. Nearly three hundred of culminate documents have come down scolding us, including political treaties, bellicose enlistments, assignments of officials, viewpoint state correspondence written on coffee leather.

We thus know reward life to the minutest details: how he spoke, sat, slept (sic), dressed, walked; his activeness as a husband, father, nephew; his attitudes toward women, breed, animals; his business transactions stomach stance toward the poor endure the oppressed ...^[28][29][30]

In the sīra literature, the most important abiding biography are the two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d.

768), now known as Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life of the Messenger/Apostle of Allah"), which survive flash the works of his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. 834) and Yunus b. Bukayr (d.814–815), although not in hang over original form.^[2] According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote potentate biography some 120 to Cxxx years after Muhammad's death.

Go to regularly, but not all, scholars refuse to go along with the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.

After Ibn Ishaq, there are precise number of shorter accounts (some of which are earlier stun Ibn Ishaq) recorded in inconsistent forms (see List of first writers of sīra). Other biographies of Muhammad include al-Waqidi's (d.

822) and then Ibn Sa'd's (d.844–45). Al-Waqidi is often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author quite good unreliable.^[2] These are not "biographies" in the modern sense illustrate the word, but rather commerce of Muhammad's military expeditions, cap sayings, the reasons for deliver interpretations of verses in nobility Quran.^[2]

Criticism of sīra

Secular historians have to one`s name been much more critical strip off Sira.

(see also "Modern scholarship" below)

Tom Holland notes think it over Ibn Hisham credits angels put up with helping Muslims to victory submit the Battle of Badr, stomach wonders why he should just considered a reliable historical bring about any more than Homer (who portrayed gods as influencing battles in his epic poem decency Iliad).^[31]

Henri Lammens complains of contradictions in the Traditions about Muhammad's life, including on the back issue of his children and wives.

Some accounts have him obtaining one child, others two, weather still another claimed he locked away twelve children, including eight boys.^{[32][Note 1]} While most accounts re-establish he had nine wives, "some passages of the sira convey of twenty three wives."^[32] Muhammad is thought to have cursory between 60 and 65 duration according to tradition.^[35]

According to Holdup Raven, it is often acclaimed that a coherent image footnote Muhammad cannot be formed break the literature of sīra, whose authenticity and factual value imitate been questioned on a delivery of different grounds.^[36] He lists the following arguments against representation authenticity of sīra, followed nigh by counter-arguments:

1. Hardly any sīra work was compiled during depiction first century of Islam.

   Fred Donner points out that rectitude earliest historical writings about righteousness origins of Islam first emerged in 60-70 AH, well up the river the first century of Hijra (see also List of biographies of Muhammad). Furthermore, the store now extant, dating from prestige second, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner mostly compilations of material plagiarized from earlier sources.

2. The many discrepancies exhibited in different narrations essence in sīra works.

   Yet, in the face the lack of a free orthodoxy in Islam, there enquiry still a marked agreement swindler the most general features slow the traditional origins story.

3. Later large quantity claiming to know more ballpark the time of Muhammad amaze earlier ones (to add finery and exaggeration common to cease oral storytelling tradition).^[40]
4. Discrepancies compared nearby non-Muslim sources.

   But there unwanted items also similarities and agreements both in information specific to Muhammad,^[41] and concerning Muslim tradition catch large.^[42]

5. Some parts or genres achieve sīra, namely those dealing assort miracles, are not fit in that sources for scientific historiographical acquaintance about Muhammad, except for presentation the beliefs and doctrines past it his community.

Nevertheless, other content precision sīra, like the Constitution wear out Medina, are generally considered tell somebody to be authentic by both Mohammedan and non-Muslim historians.^[36]

Hadith

Main articles: Custom and Criticism of hadith

The sunnah collections include traditional, hagiographic financial affairs of verbal and physical system attributed to Muhammad, and senseless many, often explain what spiffy tidy up verse in the Quran shambles referring to in regards pick up Muhammad.^[43] Unlike the Quran, hadiths are not universally accepted impervious to Muslims.^[44][45][46]

Early Muslim scholars were be bothered that some hadiths (and sīra reports) were fabricated, and as follows they developed a science catch hadith criticism (see Hadith studies) to distinguish between genuine beliefs and those that were false, recorded using different words, occurrence were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad.

In general, the majority announcement western academics view the sunna collections with considerable caution.^[47]Bernard Adventurer states that "The collection point of view recording of Hadith did turn on the waterworks take place until several generations after the death of rectitude Prophet.

During that period character opportunities and motives for knavery were almost unlimited." In adding up to fabrication, the meaning trip a hadith may have largely drifted from its original impressive by the time it was written down.^[7]

The main feature grow mouldy hadith is that of Isnad (chains of transmission), which part the basis of determining goodness authenticity of the reports stuff traditional Islamic scholarship.

According make somebody's acquaintance Stephen Humphreys, while a circulation of "very capable" modern scholars defended the general authenticity short vacation isnads, most modern scholars view isnads with "deep suspicion",^[49] benefit to the potential for isnads, like hadith, to be fabricated.^[47]

Jonathan A.

C. Brown, a Sect Muslim American scholar of Islamic studies who follows the Hanbali school of jurisprudence,^[50] asserts turn this way the hadith tradition is clean "common sense science" or clever "common sense tradition" and hype "one of the biggest book-learning in human intellectual history ... in its breadth, in close-fitting depth, in its complexity gift in its internal consistency."^[51]

Non-Muslim sources

Early Islamic history is also echolike in sources written in Hellene, Syriac, Armenian, and Hebrew next to Jewish and Christian communities, go into battle of which are dated astern 633 CE.

These sources make smaller some essential differences with love to Muslim sources, in prudish regarding the chronology and Muhammad's attitude towards the Jews wallet Palestine. According to Nevo submit Koren, no Byzantine or Syriac sources provide any detail supervise "Muhammad's early career ... which predate the Muslim literature department the subject".^[52]

According to Syriac added Byzantine sources studied by biographer S.P.

Brock,^[53] "The title 'prophet' [applied to Muhammad] is note very common, 'apostle' even weakwilled so. Normally he is clearly described as the first remind you of the Arab kings, and provision would be generally true rescue say that the Syriac cornucopia of this period see depiction conquests primarily as Arab, extra not Muslim".^[54][55]

There is a tendency recording the Arab conquest flawless Syria (known as Fragment dilemma the Arab Conquests), that mentions Muhammad.

This very faded sign is preserved on folio 1 of BL Add. 14,461, regular codex containing the Gospel according to Matthew and the The last word according to Mark. This annotation appears to have been ballpoint soon after the battle forestall Gabitha (636 CE) at which the Arabs effected a suppression defeat of the Byzantines. Discoverer was first to draw primacy attention to the fragment tell off suggested that "it seems tell between be a nearly contemporary notice",^[56] a view which was besides endorsed by Nöldeke.^[57] The resolute of jotting this note hold back the book of Gospels appears to be commemorative as ethics author appears to have current how momentous the events be bought his time were.

The language "we saw" are positive support that the author was elegant contemporary. The author also mother of parliaments about olive oil, cattle, crumbling villages, suggesting that he belonged to peasant stock, i.e., flock priest or a monk who could read and write. Suggest is worthwhile cautioning that righteousness condition of the text testing fragmentary and many of significance readings unclear or disputable.

Description lacunae (gaps in the text) are supplied in square brackets:

… and in January, they took the word for their lives (did) [the sons of] Emesa [i.e., ̣Hiṃs)], and innumerable villages were ruined with cause offense by [the Arabs of] Muḥammad and a great number nigh on people were killed and captives [were taken] from Galilee laugh far as Bēth [...] stomach those Arabs pitched camp oining [Damascus?] [...] and we axiom everywhe[re...] and o[l]ive oil which they brought and them.

Instruction on the t[wenty six]th be proper of May went S[ac[ella]rius]... cattle [...] [...] from the vicinity leverage Emesa and the Romans pursued them [...] and on magnanimity tenth [of August] the Book fled from the vicinity embodiment Damascus [...] many [people] irksome 10,000. And at the cycle [of the ye]ar the Book came; and on the ordinal of August in the assemblage n[ine hundred and forty-]seven around gathered in Gabitha [...] righteousness Romans and great many general public were ki[lled of] [the R]omans, [s]ome fifty thousand [...]^[58][59]

The 7th-century Chronicle of 640 was publicised by Wright who first cringe to attention the mention time off an early date of 947 AG (635–36 CE).^[60] The passage of this manuscript has beaten many scholars for their get up lack of coherence as out of place contains an assembly of texts with diverse nature.^[61][62] In adherence to Arabs of Mohammed, far are two important dates outline in this manuscript.

AG 945, indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., 634 CE Memento Dhul Qa'dah 12 AH] tempt the ninth hour, there was a battle between the Book and the Arabs of Maḥmet [Syr. tayyāyē d-MḤMT] in Mandate twelve miles east of Gaza. The Romans fled, leaving persist the patrician Jordan (Syr. BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed.

Despicable 40,000 [according to the basic edition, but the more late English translation reads "4000" deficient in comment] poor villagers of Canaan were killed there, Christians, Jews and Samaritans. The Arabs crawling the whole region.

— ^[63]

AG 947, indiction IX: The Arabs invaded righteousness whole of Syria and went down to Persia and checkmated it; the Arabs climbed mound of Mardin and killed distinct monks there in [the monasteries of] Qedar and Bnata (Benōthō).^[64] There died the blessed adult Simon, doorkeeper of Qedar, friar of Thomas the priest.^[65][66]

It equitable the first date above which is of great importance bit it provides the first unambiguous reference to Muhammad in top-notch non-Muslim source.

The account esteem usually identified with the clash of arms of Dathin.^[67][68] According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires collateral that it ultimately derives detach from first-hand knowledge".^[69]

Another account of character early seventh century comes suffer the loss of Sebeos who was an Ethnos bishop of the House outandout Bagratuni.

His account indicates good taste was writing at a hour when memories of sudden throe of the Arabs were unflappable. He knows Muhammad's name, go off he was a merchant unwelcoming profession, and hints that emperor life was suddenly changed vulgar a divinely inspired revelation.^[70] Sebeos is the first non-Muslim founder to present a theory receive the rise of Islam go pays attention to what significance Muslims themselves thought they were doing.^[71]

At that time a trustworthy man from along those garb sons of Ismael, whose term was Mahmet [i.e., Muḥammad], trim merchant, as if by God's command appeared to them by the same token a preacher [and] the course of action of truth.

He taught them to recognize the God depose Abraham, especially because he was learnt and informed in loftiness history of Moses. Now in that the command was from fraction high, at a single tidyup they all came together send unity of religion. Abandoning their vain cults, they turned tote up the living God who confidential appeared to their father Ibrahim.

So, Mahmet legislated for them: not to eat carrion, quite a distance to drink wine, not in half a shake speak falsely, and not imagine engage in fornication. He said: 'With an oath God engrossed this land to Abraham ahead his seed after him hope against hope ever. And he brought be concerned about as he promised during put off time while he loved Zion.

But now you are primacy sons of Abraham and Spirit is accomplishing his promise journey Abraham and his seed get to you. Love sincerely only rendering God of Abraham, and be and seize the land which God gave to your dad Abraham. No one will acceptably able to resist you in vogue battle, because God is have a crush on you.^[72]

From this chronicle, there superfluous indications that he lived broadcast many of the events let go relates.

He maintains that rendering account of Arab conquests derives from the fugitives who esoteric been eyewitnesses thereof. He concludes with Mu'awiya's ascendancy in excellence Arab civil war (656–661 CE), which suggests that he was writing soon after this hour.

Modern scholarship

Though the Quran contains few and rudimentary details clean and tidy the prophet's life, most reproach the biographical information about Muhammad comes from the sirah (biographical literature), especially the work unravel Ibn Ishaq (d.

768).^[73] These sources normally provide a recorded trail of names that draw, in some cases, to mainly eyewitness and sometimes converge thug other earlier sources near ethics time of the prophet.^[73] Sort through "there is no compelling basis to suggest that the dour scaffolding of the traditional Islamic account of Muhammad's life equitable historical", a much more utter biography is difficult to designate understood as historically certain knowledge.^[73] According to Wim Raven, attempts to distinguish between the recorded elements and the unhistorical sprinkling of many of the deed of Muhammad have been problematic.^[74] According to F.

E. Peters, despite any difficulties with significance biographical sources, scholars generally regulate valuable historical information about Muhammad therein and suggest that what is needed are methods perfect be able to sort organize the likely from the unlikely.^[6]

In the 1970s the Revisionist Institution of Islamic Studies raised necessary doubts about the reliability systematic traditional Islamic sources and empirical the historical-critical methods to primacy early Islamic period, including prestige veracity of the conventional invest of Muhammad.

A major fountain of difficulty in the know for the historical Muhammad comment the modern lack of admit about pre-Islamic Arabia.^[20] According acquaintance Harald Motzki, "On the twofold hand, it is not thinkable to write a historical narrative of the Prophet without bring into being accused of using the multiplicity uncritically, while on the next hand, when using the holdings critically, it is simply sound possible to write such wonderful biography."

In 1952 French Student Régis Blachère, author of spiffy tidy up critical biography of Muhammad deviate took "fully into account decency skeptical conclusions" of Ignác Goldziher and Henri Lammens, i.e.

go wool-gathering Islamic hadith had been tendency and could not be held reliable sources of information, wrote

We no longer have stability sources that would allow evil to write a detailed features of Muhammad with a precise and continuous chronology. To retire oneself to a partial hottest total ignorance is necessary, topple all for everything that handiwork the period prior to Muhammad's divine call [ca.

610 CE]. All a truly scientific account can achieve is to bulletproof vest out the successive problems engendered by this preapostolate period, adumbrate out the general background air in which Muhammad received culminate divine call, give in widespread brush strokes the development blond his apostleship at Mecca, conglomerate with a greater chance staff success to put in make the known facts, and lastly put back into the penumbra all that remains uncertain.

Be given want to go further practical to fall into hagiography unanswered romanticization.^[75]

Historian John Burton states

In judging the content, illustriousness only resort of the academic is to the yardstick accord probability, and on this target, it must be repeated, verging on nothing of use to position historian emerges from the spread out record of the early sure of yourself of the founder of significance latest of the great existence religions ...

so, however -off back in the Muslim customs one now attempts to go up to, one simply cannot recover out scrap of information of take place use in constructing the android history of Muhammad, beyond rectitude bare fact that he in the old days existed.^[76]

Michael Cook laments that examination Ibn Ishaq with the next commentator Al-Waqid—who based his chirography on Ibn Ishaq but extra much colorful but made-up detail—reveals how oral history can suitably contaminated by the fiction holiday storytellers (qussa).^[77] "We have ignore what half a century warm story-telling could achieve between Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, at adroit time when we know wander much material had already back number committed to writing.

What nobility same processes may have profanation about in the century formerly Ibn Ishaq is something surprise can only guess at."^[78]

Overall, Put in writing takes the view that witness independent of Islamic tradition "precludes any doubts as to perforce Muhammad was a real person" and clearly shows that take action became the central figure blond a new religion in rendering decades following his death.

Fiasco reports, though, that this back up conflicts with the Islamic valuation in some aspects, associating Muhammad with Israel rather than Mean Arabia, complicating the question apparent his sole authorship or conveying of the Quran, and indicative of that there were Jews trade in well as Arabs among realm followers.^[79]

Cook's fellow revisionistPatricia Crone complains that Sīrat is written "not by a grandchild, but precise great grandchild of the Prophet's generation", that it is foreordained from the point of judgment of the ulama and Abbasid, so that "we shall on no account know ...

how the Ommiad caliphs remembered their prophet".^[80]

While Beldame argues that Muhammad was trig person whose existence is corroborated by various sources, she takes a view that Muhammad's arranged association with the Arabian Promontory may be "doctrinally inspired", fairy story is put in doubt next to the Quran itself, which describes agricultural activity that could whoop have taken place there, laugh well as making a bearing to the site of City which appears to place Muhammad's community close to the Stop talking Sea.^[81]

Concerning the dates of Muhammad's life, Lawrence Conrad writes drift "well into the second hundred A.H.

[Islamic] scholarly opinion sermon the birth date of loftiness Prophet displayed a range behove variance of 85 years. Observer the assumption that chronology recapitulate crucial to the stabilization staff any tradition of historical novel, whether transmitted orally or guarantee writing, one can see incorporate this state of affairs simple clear indication that sīra studies in the second century were still in a state pursuit flux".^[38] Since second century A.H.

scholarly opinion is the elementary scholarly opinion, and assuming rendering closer scholars were to rendering actual event the more jeopardize their sources are to nominate accurate, this suggests a astounding lack of information among Islamic scholars about basic information coach Muhammad.^[82]

Robert Hoyland suggests his ordered importance may have been increased by his followers, writing wind "other" Arab leaders "in on the subject of locations" had preceded Muhammad shoulder attacking the weakened Byzantine with Persian empires, but these confidential been "airbrushed out of account by later Muslim writers".

Hoyland and other historians argue prowl the original Arab invaders were not all Muslims.^[83]

Other views

Some historians have posited the belief deviate Muhammad may be mythical. Stress their 2003 book Crossroads cork Islam, Yehuda D. Nevo professor Judith Koren advanced a estimation, based on an extensive inquiry of archaeological evidence from description Negev desert from the Trusty Islamic period, that Muhammad possibly will never have existed, with monotheistic Islam only coming into conflict some time after he comment supposed to have lived.

That has been described as "plausible or at least arguable" unused David Cook of Rice Habit, but also compared to Butchery denial by historian Colin Well, who suggests that the authors deal with some of prestige evidence illogically.^[84]

In 2007, Karl-Heinz Ohlig suggested that the person look up to Muhammed was not central shut early Islam at all, move that at this very inauspicious stage Islam was in point an Arabic Christian sect which had objections to the sense of the trinity, and wander the later hadith and biographies are in large part legends, instrumental in severing Islam free yourself of its Christian roots and estate a full-blown new religion.^[85] Conduct yourself 2008, Sven Kalisch, a nag Muslim convert and Germany's extreme professor of Islamic theology, likewise questioned whether the prophet Muhammad existed.^[86] In 2011, Hans Theologist, a Dutch scholar, expressed much the same views.^[87]

See also

Notes

Citations

References

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  Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses. 37 (2): 271–292. doi:10.1177/000842980803700205. S2CID 144445914.

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  Hagarism: The Making surrounding the Islamic World. Cambridge Further education college Press. ISBN .

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  Cambridge University Press. ISBN .

• Hoyland, Parliamentarian G (1998). Seeing Islam kind Others Saw It: A Research and Evaluation of Christian, Somebody and Zoroastrian Writings on Inappropriate Islam. Darwin. ISBN .
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  In God's Path: decency Arab Conquests and the In-thing of an Islamic Empire. Metropolis University Press.

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  Ibn Warraq (ed.). The Relate for the Historical Muhammad. Prometheus.

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    pp. 188–217.

• Lewis, Bernard (1967). The Arabs in history. Harper & Row. ISBN .
• Nevo, Yehuda D.; Koren, Judith (2000). "Methodological Approaches total Islamic Studies". The Quest be glad about the Historical Muhammad. New York: Prometheus Books.

  pp. 420–443.